TauTology

concept
url of this page: http://bit.ly/ds42t A tautology is the label for saying the same thing twice and what this means can't be separated from the Pragmatics of the individual. Conclusions as to what it means to formulate the same concept twice will generally eminate from whomever is arbitrating the proper parsing of the words at issue. An element of interpersonal power-dynamics can infuse itself into definitional debates. The editor can label something a tautology so as to better dismiss the opposition's position if it conflicts with his world view. Saying the same thing twice takes on varying nuances either fallacious, logically valid or poetic:
 * Rhetoric, propositions.
 * language verbosity, expressions, poetry, language redundancy.
 * logical validity.
 * logically valid but unintended and thus a Logical Tautology - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tautology_(logic).

A rhetorical tautology is defined as a series of statements that comprise an argument, whereby the statements are constructed in such a way that the truth of the propositions are guaranteed or that the truth of the propositions cannot be disputed by defining a term in terms of another self referentially: It says the same thing twice or repeats the same concept using words or terms in the synonymoussense. The argument is formulated in such a way that it cannot be refuted. A story in the New York Times isn't confirmed by reading it twice and neither is a world view confirmed by expressing it twice.

Consequently the statement conveys no useful information regardless of its length or complexity making it Unfalsifiable. It is formulating a description in a way that masquerades as an explanation when the real reason for the phenomena cannot be independently derived. The statement "If you can't find something (that you lost), you are not looking in the right place" is tautological. It is true and can't be disputed, but conveys no useful information. As a physical example, to play a game of darts where the dart board was full of bulls-eyes could be called a "tautological" game. The player would not lose. Any argument containing a tautology is flawed and must be considered a LogicalFallacy.

A tautological argument is not an argument; a tautological game is not a game. Mathematical equations, such as E = mc2, are not tautologies. The terms on both sides of the equation are defined elsewhere independently. The equal sign does not mean "is defined by" but rather equal to, establishing an equivalence. It doesn't define one term in term's of another. Acceleration and mass independently don't equal force but their product MA as derived by Newton does, hence the equation F=MA isn't a tautology. X=X could be a logical validity,mathematical redundancy or a logical tautology depending on the http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatics or motive behind it. There is no language without a motive. A Truism is true by definition, it is not a tautology but can be reformulated in a tautological manner in order to disguise the truistic nature of the original statement and underlying Premises. The dividing line between a Truism and an observation is Pragmatics. Neither is Begging the question a tautology. A Truism is embedded inside an argument in an attempt to disguise that the conclusion based on the argument's core is a Non_sequitur_(logic) Non sequitur (logic). The sun shines is an observation, it becomes a Truism if used in an argument to influence the hearer to come to a conclusion which doesn't follow logically from the core of the argument.

The truism in such a case should be considered a Red herring (logical fallacy) an irrelevant piece of trivia employed as a rhetorical smoke screen. Tautologies, circular reasoning and Truisms are used together as a rhetorical device in a deceptive attempt to argue for a view if it isn't possible to independently establish the real reason for the viewpoint elsewhere. The seeming complexity of such an argument might comes across as well reasoned but is really just the articulation of a world view that can't be Falsified.

Rhetorical tautologies are a Synonymous play with words that alludes to the same fact but in doing so presents itself as an explanation giving the illusion of uncovering the actual reason for the observation. An example of this would be the following proposition: The word favorable and the term more common says the same thing twice, which doesn't tell us the actual reason the traits become more common. This is illustrated with two questions:
 * favorable traits become more common and unfavorable traits become less common.
 * Other than noting the traits became more common how was their favorability measured?
 * Other than noting the traits were favorable how was their capacity to increase measured?

The argument is formulated in such a way that it cannot be refuted. Furthermore the underlying Premise and word view of the formulator must be questioned because it might contain circularity, false dichotomies,RetrospectiveSpecification with the tautology an attempt to disguise these underlying Logical fallacies. What he assumes to be the truth will cast a different light on the sentence then another person with a different world view because there is no language without a motive and no sentence has a single true meaning, the sentence must be interpreted within the persons Pragmatics. If a cat walked over a keyboard and by random luck typed out the sentence it would have no meaning.

Identify tautology
Identify the terms in a sentence or passage used in the synonymous sense. Take any of these terms or words and reformulate the sentence as a question in terms of the other word. This will show whether the terms or words says the same thing twice.

Circular reasoning isn't a tautology
Begging the question assumes the premise in the conclusion, such as Tiktaalik. How does one know whether he had kids or not, if he had no offspring, how could he be the ancestor of anybody? Circular reasoning isn't saying the same thing twice.

Is a tautology true by definition?
Is a tautology defined as something which is true by definition? This depends what is meant with "tautology", no word has a single true meaning as per http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatics. There are a range of concepts for which one word will not suffice particularly in the English language, Greek in contrast has single words with a single meaning such as Agape. A rhetorical tautology involves a deceitful attempt at persuasion. Tautological expressions are used in poetry. The logical validity X = X could also be a rhetorical tautology or tautological proposition if used in a different context such as: X=x and therefore a monkey gave birth to a human(Non_sequitur_(logic)).

It depends on the context in which terms and words are used by signal sender and how signal receiver decodes it. In computer generated theorem verification the idea is to avoid logical tautologies such as X=X since this is not result to be obtained. The result would be logically valid but unintended and thus a Logical Tautology( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tautology_(logic))  If X=X is generated it is assumed that the set theorist wasn't trying to deceitfully convince others of his world view, hence logical tautology and not rhetorical tautology. Obviously X=X but when tutoring entry level algebra X=X might not be so obvious and the logical validity of X=X needs to be grasped as a low level concept. X=X in one context says the same thing twice in order to convince of a world view which is a Non_sequitur. In another context affirms it as a logical validity for its pedagogical use and in another context is a logical validity but not intended(logical tautology).

JohnWilkins confuses these subtleties by defining a tautology:".... something which is defined as being true by definition..." due to his particular world view and his realization that survival of the fittest by Spencer was a tautological proposition. See JohnWilkins for his post on this issue. There are threads by Wilkins on Usenet talk.origins dealing with the http://www.talkorigins.org tautology article that he wrote where he stated that the article is out of date, and needs to be rewritten.

X=X and what happens, happens are true by definition but what is the context in which it is used or the Pragmatics? The issue isn't the semantic definition of a word but the multiple concepts that can be communicated with words such as for example "random,selection, accumulation etc.", which elsewhere in this document is shown to be able to be used in both the volitional and non-volitional sense. There are five Greek words for love: Agape, Phile, Eros. Agape is used in the New Testament to describe God's love for man. Eros means sexual love and isn't used in the New Testament.

In English the context or Pragmatics with the word "love" determines what is meant by signal sender to signal receiver. The Aristotelians (not evolutionists, a word coined by Darwin in OoS) are exploiting the English language to hide what they mean by words such as selection(who did the selecting?), accumulation, tautology, evolution etc: What will be , will be, with the Premise of RetrospectiveSpecification. A widely held underlying premise is the multi-universe theory: Out of billions of possible universes we were the one that happened to be in existence, but the sample space is actually two: Either we exist or we don't, not billions.


 * X=X, and therefore a monkey gave birth to a human(Non_sequitur) - ''Rhetorical tautology' or fallacious.
 * X=X, in an entry level class on algebra stated for its pedagogical use - Logical validity and not fallacious.
 * X=X, in computer theorem verification, but unintended result - Logical tautology and not fallacious.
 * X=X, Jokingly said by one set theorist to another - Tautological expression and not fallacious.
 * X=X Random paper picked up in the street what does it mean? It depends on who said X = X - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatics. And the same goes for natural selection which like You have a green light has no single true meaning.
 * 4=3, random paper picked up in the street means what? Without knowing who wrote it isn't even wrong.

The subtleties and nuances of what it means to say the same thing twice can't be separated from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatics. Any article dealing with the concept of a tautology and not incorporating http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatics like the Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tautology_(rhetoric) is deceit and deception by the Wikipedia editors because their world view.

Tautologies from Aristotle
(Aristotle, in his "Physicae Auscultationes" (lib.2, cap.8, s.2):
 * OoS:".............So what hinders the different parts (of the body) from having this merely accidental relation in nature? as the teeth, for example, grow by necessity, the front ones sharp, adapted for dividing, and the grinders flat, and serviceable for masticating the food; since they were not made for the sake of this, but it was the result of accident. And in like manner as to other parts in which there appears to exist an adaptation to an end. Wheresoever, therefore, all things together (that is all the parts of one whole) happened like as if they were made for the sake of something, these were preserved, having been appropriately constituted by an internal spontaneity; and whatsoever things were not thus constituted, perished and still perish.........."

The passage reduces to: Things appropriately constituted were preserved and things not appropriately constituted perished. Or in other words: The good ones lived, the bad ones died, which explains everything. Appropriately constituted and preserved are a synonymous play with words that alludes to the same fact but it doesn't independently derive the actual reason something was preserved. To identify the tautology take any of the synonymous terms or words and formulate a question:
 * Other than noting it was preserved how was it's constitutability measured?
 * Other than noting it wasn't constituted how was it's perishability measured?

Wasn't constituted and perishable says the same thing twice, making Aristotle's argument watertight, explaining everything meeting any contingency with unflagging success, it cannot be refuted and is thus a LogicalFallacy. His tautology reduces to: The good one lived, the bad one died. This can be extended to anything in existence such as: ".....the good gene survived, the bad gene died...." in the light of OriginOfSpeciesAsMyth - http://lostborders.wordpress.com/2009/03/09/the-origin-of-species-as-myth.

After quoting Aristotle, Darwin went on to say: "...... we can see here the principle of NaturalSelection shadowed forth....". The question is how did Darwin solve the problem of genes as a CyberneticAbstraction if he couldn't define the problem? This question must be extended back to Aristotle and the answer is that Aristotle explained everything: past, present and future, thus nothing, his control of the facts was an illusion. Furthermore Aristotle's premise that everything was the result of accident means that everything he said ultimately is the result on an accident, including the very paragraph itself, why then should we believe a word he said?

Aristotle formulated a rhetorical tautology in order to convince that the apparent design in the universe was a result of accident. He allowed no means for his world view to be Falsifiable, thus his conclusion based on proposition which cannot be refuted was a Non_sequitur_(logic) Non sequitur (logic). CharlesKingsley in a letter dated 1863 to FrederickMaurice he interpreted Oos as:
 * ".. Darwin is conquering everywhere, and rushing in like a flood, by the mere force of truth and fact. The one or two who hold out against Darwin are forced to try all sorts of subterfuges as to fact or else by invoking the tedium theologium.... The state of the scientific mind; they find that now they have got rid of an interfering God - a master magician as I call it -- they have to choose between the absolute empire of accident and a living, immanent, ever-working God..."


 * JohnBurroughs in his book The Last Harvest(1922) interpreted Darwin as: "....Try to think of that wonderful organ, the eye, with all its marvelous powers and adaptations, as the result of what we call chance or Natural Selection. Well may Darwin have said that the eye made him shudder when he tried to account for it by Natural Selection. Why, its adaptations in one respect alone, minor though they be, are enough to stagger any number of selectionists...."

The concept HenryFairfieldOsborn had with NaturalSelection in 1922, March 5 New York Times differed from Burroughs interpretation. Today many use NaturalSelection in the volitional sense. NS like "You have a green light" has no single true meaning, the various concepts is important by many authors and their world view. The difficulty is that they all used NaturalSelection but what they meant by it differed like day contrasts with night.

During the 19th Tremaux (http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/archive/00003806/01/Tremaux-on-species.pdf) differed with the belief held then that the mind is an illusion. If a person says: "My mind is an illusion created by the brain" then that very sentence itself is an illusion because it was formulated by his mind. In addition why should one believe a word he says if he thinks everything he says is the result of illusions in his head?

Tautological expressions and propositions
The tautological expression (an unmarried bachelor) contains a redundant word ("unmarried"), but has meaning and can be used to form a meaningful proposition, e.g. "John is an unmarried bachelor". This proposition is not a rhetorical tautology because the intent isn't to deceive. It could be considered as unnecessarily language verbosity. The tautological proposition (all bachelors are unmarried) stated in a class on formal logic theory on the other hand, gives us no information that is not already contained in the definition of the word "bachelor". The Pragmatics or context with 'unmarried bachelor' by the user would determine whether it is a proposition,expression, logical validity, or language verbosity. In an academic setting such as a journal propositions are put forward in an attempt at deriving an independent explanation for an observation. Tautologies in such a setting would be a tautological proposition and unacceptable. Tautological expressions used in an informal setting such as a sports event with its associated colloquial speech is acceptable because of the Pragmatics] with it. The dividing line between a tautological proposition and expression is [[Pragmatics.

Example of a tautological proposition
The geological record features episodes of high dying, during which extinction-prone groups are more likely to disappear, leaving  extinction-resistant groups as life's legacy.
 * S.J. Gould &amp; N. Eldredge, "Punctuated equilibrium comes of age", Nature (1993) 366:223-7, p. 225.


 * How was this "extinction-proneness" measured, except by noting that the groups disappeared?
 * How was their disapearability measured except by noting that they were "extinction-prone"?

Gould formulated the proposition so that it cannot be disputed: "..certain groups were extinction prone because they disappeared.." But the real reason for their extinction needs be derived independently elsewhere. Nothing is explained by stating that because they were extinction prone they died, their death implies that they were extinction prone. Extinction and disappear or death are a synonymous play with words that alludes to the same fact but masquerades as an explanation. It is derived from Aristotle and Epicurus philosophy: The good (robot,gene rabbit etc) lived while the bad one died or in other words: What happens happens.

Talk origins
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-meritt/evolution.html According to the Talk.Origins Archive, sharks haven't changed because they "are excellently adapted to their particular niche in their environment." Does anyone know how this "excellent adaptation" was measured (apart from observing that sharks haven't changed, that is)?

Irish Elk
Mayr, trying to explain why things like the giant antlers of the "Irish Elk" and the canines of saber-toothed tigers aren't problematic for Darwinism: quote: "All these features would seem, at first sight, to be highly deleterious, and it was claimed that natural selection could not possibly have favored or even tolerated their evolution. However, the studies of Rensch, Simpson, Gould, and various other paleontologists have demonstrated that the species that had these "excessive" characters always flourished for considerable periods of time when these characters clearly were of selective advantage and that their ultimate extinction coincided with a climatic or broad faunal change which simultaneously led to the extinction of nummerous other species without such `excessive' characters." E. Mayr, Toward a New Philosophy of Biology: Observations of an Evolutionist, (Harvard University Press, 1988), p. 250. Ques:These species "flourished", so their structures must have been favored after all?

Wikipedia's natural selection opening paragraph

 * Dec 2008 to Dec2007 revision of natural selection on Wikipedia main article

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natural_selection&oldid=259585753 "....Natural selection is the process by which favorable heritable traits become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms, and unfavorable heritable traits become less common, due to differential reproduction of genotypes...." But no citation is given of any modern or ancient works, nor do we know who was the author and what is his world view, background knowledge or Pragmatics and who he was interpreting. If Darwin was interpreted how did Darwin explain something he didn't know about: Genes? What was this Wikipedia contributor's view on the question of: WhatIsLife? For all we know a cat could have walked over a keyboard.

Saying the same thing twice
Is the contention that "free gift" is a tautology true? . To assert that such a phrase always says the same thing twice is to misframe the particular premise of a user. For example: A man's gift of a dinner and a movie to his date may be a "gift" but it sometimes comes bundled with expectations. But, if the recipient of the free dinner asks first "if I go with you, are you expecting anything?" and gets the answer "no", then it's accurate to say the invitee got a "free gift" of dinner. It is incorrect that no gift can ever have non-free implications attached to it.

Another example is "suddenly, without warning". If two armies oppose each other in the field and one commander sends the opposition a warning message as follows "I instruct you to retreat or I will attack", any subsequent attack, sudden or otherwise, was warned. "Sudden" means "happening or coming unexpectedly". But students of military history have noted; via effective deception, any attack can be seen as "sudden", even if fair warning was previously given.

In the context of above and paraphrasing JerryFodor: What then is the intended meaning of : natural,selection, FitNess, genotype,phenotype, FitnessLandscapes, EcologicalNiches, evolution, evolutionary, DarWinism,AdapTation, AlleLe, DarWinian, random natural selection, non-random natural selection, random design, non-random design ? To answer the question we must be told who is the individual using the terms, from what time era and knowledge.

Darwin on propositions which cannot be disputed
There are key passages where Darwin reformulated PatrickMatthews, JamesHutton, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Julien_d%27Omalius_d%27Halloy, Epicurus, Spencer and Aristotle labeling their concept   natural selection and makes his argument irrefutable or Unfalsifiable by using the phrase propositions which cannot be disputed. d'Halloy's concept with http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descent_with_modification in 1848 was labeled natural selection by Darwin.


 * OoS For if each part is liable to individual variations at all ages, and the variations tend to be inherited at a corresponding or earlier age--propositions which cannot be disputed--then the instincts and structure of the young could be slowly modified as surely as those of the adult; and both cases must stand or fall together with the whole theory of natural selection.


 * OoS".......... That many and serious objections may be advanced against the theory of descent with modification through variation and natural selection, I do not deny. I have endeavoured to give to them their full force. Nothing at first can appear more difficult to believe than that the more complex organs and instincts have been perfected, not by means superior to, though analogous with, human reason, but by the accumulation of innumerable slight variations, each good for the individual possessor.  Nevertheless, this difficulty, though appearing to our imagination insuperably great, cannot be considered real if we admit the following propositions, namely, that all parts of the organisation and instincts offer, at least individual differences--that there is a struggle for existence leading to the  preservation of profitable deviations of structure or instinct--and, lastly, that gradations in the state of perfection of each organ may have existed, each good of its kind.   The truth of these propositions cannot, I think, be disputed. ........."

The words preservation, profitable, perfection, perfected and good are a synonymous play with words that alludes to same fact as shown by reducing the passage it to its core proposition which cannot be disputed: Species are engaged in a struggle for existence leading to the preservation of  those profitable structures that allowed them to survive.


 * OoS:".........IF under changing conditions of life organic beings present individual differences in almost every part of their structure, and this cannot be disputed; if there be, owing to their geometrical rate of increase, a severe struggle for life at some age, season, or year, and this certainly cannot be disputed; then, considering the infinite complexity of the relations of all organic beings to each other and to their conditions of life, causing an infinite diversity in structure, constitution, and habits, to be advantageous to them, it would be a most extraordinary fact if no variations had ever occurred useful to each being’s own welfare, in the same manner as so many variations have occurred useful to man. But if variations useful to any organic being ever do occur, assuredly individuals thus characterised will have the best chance of being preserved in the struggle for life; and from the strong principle of inheritance, these will tend to produce offspring similarly characterised. This principle of preservation, or the [survival of the fittest], I have called Natural Selection. It leads to the improvement of each creature in relation to its organic and inorganic conditions of life, and consequently, in most cases, to what must be regarded as an advance in organisation....."


 * Question: Other than noting the offspring survived how was their fitness or suitability(Spencer's word) measured?

Darwin defined natural selection only once
"...I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term natural selection, in order to mark its relation to man's power of selection. But the expression often used by Mr. Herbert Spencer, of the Survival of the Fittest, is more accurate ...."
 * How did Darwin measure the variations usefulness other than noting they were preserved?
 * How did Darwin measure the variations preservability other than noting they were useful?

Darwin on the preservation of individuals
"....All these results, as we shall more fully see in the next chapter, follow from the struggle for life. Owing to this struggle, variations, however slight and from whatever cause proceeding, if they be in any degree profitable to the individuals of a species, in their infinitely complex relations to other organic beings and to their physical conditions of life, will tend to the preservation of such individuals, and will generally be inherited by the offspring..."

Which reduces to: Variations that are profitable will result in the preservation of such individuals. "profitable" and "preservation" alludes to the same fact guaranteeing the truth of the proposition. It reflects Aristotle and Epicurus underlying philosophy : What happens, happens.

Natural selection
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Natural_selection/Archive_8 Natural selection is the process by which individual organisms with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with unfavorable traits.

Question: Other than noting that the traits survived how was their favorability measured? more likely and favorable alludes to the same fact guaranteeing the truth of the proposition and is thus fallacious. The tautology also assumes the underlying premise, thus begging the question: It is assumed that all species today are descendant from other species, this is the very issue that must be proven. See this thread for further clarity by author NoShellSwill on Google groups - http://groups.google.com/group/talk.origins/browse_thread/thread/a9582738eb994b2b/1ac2fc0c52c491d9#1ac2fc0c52c491d9

The term natural selection Darwin lifted from PatrickMatthew natural means of selection. The concept with NS though was from JamesHutton in 1794 and can be traced back all the way to Aristotle and Epicurus. No word or sentence has a single true meaning or concept. SoF for example is either a tautological proposition or expression depending on who says SoF, just like "Beer is Beer"  has an intention, either fallacious or poetic depending  on who uttered the phrase, as this http://maverickphilosopher.powerblogs.com/posts/1114725461.shtml. SoF and Beer-is-Beer etc. doesn't have a single true meaning. JamesHutton(1794), PatrickMatthews, Wallace,HerbertSpencer, Darwin and others reformulated Aristotle and Epicurus original tautology in many different ways. The grammatical gargoyle natural selectionwas the term coined to associated this tautology with by Darwin.


 * talk archive revision of Natural selection

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Natural_selection/Archive_8 Natural selection is the process by which individual organisms with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce than those with unfavorable traits.


 * Dec 2008 to Dec2007 revision of natural selection on Wikipedia main article

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natural_selection&oldid=259585753 "....Natural selection is the process by which favorable heritable traits become more common in successive generations of a population of reproducing organisms, and unfavorable heritable traits become less common, due to differential reproduction of genotypes...."


 * Sept 2009 revision

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection  Sept 2009 "...Natural selection is the process by which heritable traits that make it more likely for an organism to survive and successfully reproduce become more common in a population over successive generations. It is a key mechanism of evolution...."

Neither of these revisions cite any pages in Darwin's OoS, who wrote these paragraphs ? The 2008 one had "Genes", which Darwin and Aristotle didn't know about. Why was genes removed in the 2009 revision, it is like imagine somebody removes the word "Newton" in a revision of the gravity article.

Epicurus
http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A12&pageseq=1 "....That great enigma, 'the exquisite adaptation of one part of an organism to another part, and to the conditions of life,' more especially the construction of the human body, Democritus made no attempt to solve. Empedocles, a man of more fiery and poetic nature, introduced the notion of love and hate among the atoms to account for, their combination and separation. Noticing this gap in the doctrine of Democritus, he struck in with the penetrating thought, linked, however, with some wild speculation, that it lay in the very nature of those combinations which were suited to their ends (in other words, in harmony with their environment) to maintain themselves, while unfit combinations, having no proper habitat, must rapidly disappear. Thus more than 2,000 years ago the doctrine of the 'survival of the fittest,' which in our day, not on the basis of vague conjecture, but of positive knowledge, has been raised to such extraordinary significance, had received at all events partial enunciation.3..."

rephrase
Epicurus struck  with the penetrating thought ..... that it lay in the very nature of those combinations which were ...... in harmony with their environment... to maintain themselves, while unfit combinations disappear. Thus more than 2,000 years ago the doctrine of the 'survival of the fittest,'......... has been raised to significance....,

rephrase
Epicurus struck  with the penetrating thought ..... that those in harmony with their environment  maintained themselves, while the unfit combinations disappear. Thus more than 2,000 years ago the doctrine of the 'survival of the fittest was has been raised to significance.

rephrase for tautological essence
''Those in harmony maintained themselves, while the unfit disappear. '' This proposition cannot be disputed hence is a logical fallacy. It reflects Aristotle philosophy : What happens, happens. See Creationism and Its Critics in Antiquity (Sather Classical Lectures) (Paperback) http://www.amazon.com/Creationism-Critics-Antiquity-Classical-Lectures/dp/0520260066/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1228971065&sr=1-1

Is survival of the fittest a tautology ?
That depends on who says SoF and in what context with what background knowledge and Pragmatics since a term only means what an individual intends it to mean. Try and contact Herbert Spencer and ask him two questions:
 * Other than noting the species survived how was their fitness or suitability measured?
 * Other than noting they were suitable how was their survivability measured? 

Spencer sold over a million books, OoS was read by a person in 1860 with Spencer's ideas, today Spencer is hardly ever mentioned. From his writing with fitness he meant suitable, he was widely sited during the 19th century. As Darwin wrote:"..natural selection or survival of the fittest which is a better expression....." which to a read back then meant: "....survival of the most suitable is a better expression....." Today nobody knows what is meant with the word "fitness", what concept is being conveyed isn't clear. "Fitness" isn't a concept, but a means for signal sender to encode his particular concept within in his reference frame a 150 years after Spencer.

selection of rocks
Selection, modification, random, "selection at random", random selection, probability sample, directed selection, non-random selection are all symbol strings, they are not concepts. Only a conscious being can have a concept and uses these symbol strings to encode his concept.


 * 1) What happens happens.: There was a selection of rocks on the mountain after the earthquake. The earthquake had no intent to assemble an assortment or selection of rocks, the symbol string selection in this case isn't associated with consciousness.
 * 2) The mountaineers assembled a selection of rocks to form a camp. Selection here conveys the concept of consciousness.
 * 3) Outside there lies a selection of rocks. What this means depends on who says so Pragmatics. For example Peter could have placed a selection of rocks outside(design) or a storm could have dislodged a selection of rocks(pattern) from a mountain. The sentence would be just as meaningless as "You have a green light" if it isn't known who said so as per the Pragmatics article on Wikipedia.
 * 3) Random selection or Selection at random - what is the difference? See http://bit.ly/19lJrY

See http://newsgroups.derkeiler.com/Archive/Talk/talk.origins/2007-12/msg04506.html for the concept John Harshman has with "selection". JH wrote: "......Selection does not implicitly denote intellegence....." Which is correct in the same way that "random" isn't always used in "what happens happens" sense as per http://bit.ly/19lJrY. The examples JH gave are in the sense of 1) - what will be, will be. The problem is that it isn't always clear in what context "selection" is being used or why it is being used at all because in 99% of cases "selectus or selection" is used to convey the concept of volition. Who did the selecting? - nobody then why are transmutationists using selection.
 * Sam wrote: "...Get a jar of peanuts. Close your eyes and reach into the jar, selecting a peanut. You have now randomly selected a peanut! Don't they have bingo where you live? Or the lottery?..." which was addressed here http://bit.ly/19lJrY

accumulation
http://www.richarddawkins.net/forum/viewtopic.php?f=4&amp;t=51836&amp;p=1171619#p1171619 LogosCalamus wrote:".....I use the word "accumulation" in preference to "selection". Accumulation does not imply intelligent choice. Selection is a good word to use if you believe god did it, or if there exist a mathematical patern. There are scientists, evolutionary humanists and evo-psychologists who debate the usefulness of "selection"....."

It depends what is your intent with "accumulation".
 * A) There was an accumulation of sand over time on the mountain
 * B) There was an accumulation of fish by the fishermen.
 * C) See http://www.perrymarshallspeaks.com and http://www.cosmicfingerprints.com/ for the pattern - design distinction.

A- is a pattern and B- is a design. You either have patterns or designs. There is no intent behind a pattern but a design always has an intent. "selection" implies a choice 99% of the time as per the "selection of rocks" example.

principle of divergence
To answer the question: What is the principle of Divergence or more specific the difference between the concept Darwin had with it and the concept he had with Theory of Evolution? None: ToNS, ToE, selection, divergence, Survival of the most suitable (Spencer)...., etc..... were all different word fillers for the same tautological essence from PatrickMatthews: Those that didn't reproduce were less perfect while those that did reproduce were more perfect or what is adapted is adapted from JamesHutton, Which Darwin restated as "....The preservation of individuals, which were favorable, and the destruction of those which weren't favorable......" , labeling it ToE which he also called Theory of Natural selection 36 times, which was that the dinosaurs died because there were less improved.

With the error continuing here at Harvard http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2009/06/wrangham-we-are-what-we-eat-and-what-we-cook/ ",,,Wrangham says. “We are biologically adapted to cook food. It’s part of who we are and affects us in every way you can imagine: biologically, anatomically, socially...” How did Wrangham deduce that were are adapted to cook food other than noting we do cook food? He might as well have said a rock is adapted at being a rock.

What is the theory of evolution?
What is the difference between the concepts encoded with the word "evolution" or "evolvere"(Latin) and the term "Theory of evolution" and who is encoding for such a concept from what knowledge base? On Wikipedia "Theory of evolution" redirects to the page marked Evolution: Why? Who is the person that decided that the concept Darwin encoded for with the word couplet "Theory of evolution", used only twice in OoS can't have a separate page nor be allowed to be quoted in the main article of http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution. There are multiple concepts from many authors (punk-eek, gradualism) who are encoding for different ideas with the word "evolution". Why isn't there a separate entry dealing with the concept Darwin had with the term "Theory of gradual evolution" or "Theory of evolution". Gould's PunkEek concept with "theory of evolution" differs from Darwin's concept with "Theory of gradual evolution", used only once. Darwin objected to "evolution" the word because back then it meant God was involved, "evolution" appears only a few times in the book.

Natural selection as successful algorithm from patent filings
http://www.freepatentsonline.com/6266654.html - Patent5824312Selection :"....Natural selection is the most successful algorithm known for the generation of solutions to problems. Some philosophers of science characterize the algorithm in quite general terms--the differential reproduction of randomly generated successful variations--and assert that it is the only solution-generating algorithm there can be....."

"...the differential reproduction of randomly generated successful variations-...". Which rephrased reduces to: Successful variations replicate. "replicate" and "successful" alludes to the same fact, it says the same thing twice. Natural selection, differential, randomly are word fillers obscuring the underlying Aristotelian tautological fallacy.

Does this "most successful algorithm" function as some sort of universal mechanism? Wouldn't such a mechanism be just as implausible as a single differential equation explaining all of physics.

Notes on Darwin

 * Darwin never said "reproductive success" nor "random mutations".
 * He said chance was an "...incorrect expression....".
 * RM surfaced in the journals around 1910, after Darwin died.
 * He was the Beagle's gentlemanly companion, the doctor was the naturalist, OoS is wrong on this account.
 * In a letter to Asa Gray he noted how he deduced the principle of "Descent with modification" between 1840 and 1850, but it was a paper by http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Julien_d%27Omalius_d%27Halloy in 1848 form which he got the term. The term DWM darwin labeled Natural Selection.

Openings definisie
AfrTautology http://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bespreking:Natuurlike_seleksie

".....Natuurlike seleksie is 'n verskynsel in die natuur waar sekere voordelige evolusionêre kenmerke aan organismes deur middel van voortplanting bó die kenmerke van ander organismes gekeur word, en dus mettertyd 'n groterwordende prominentheid handhaaf....."

Buiten die feit dat die organismes meer prominent geword het, hoe was hulle voordeligheid onafhanklig gemeet?
 * Die enigste maatstaf is om te kyk watter skepsels dit gemaak het en watter nie. Die inleiding is wel 'n bietjie lomp, maar ek kan nie nou aan 'n beter bewoording dink nie. Anrie (kontak) 19:43, 5 Oktober 2009 (UTC)
 * Dus die wat dit maak is voordelig en die wat dit nie maak nie is sleg? Dit klink na n herformulering van Aristotle, sien http://scratchpad.wikia.com/wiki/TauTology vir my notas in verband hiermee.


 * Buiten die feit dat hulle voordelig was, hoe was hulle prominentheid gemeet? Kan jy sien dat "prominent" end "voordelig" dieselfde ding twee keer se, wat dus die openings paragraaf onbetwisbaar maak, dit is 100% waterdig. Geen argument kan dit weerle nie wat dit n a logisie falsheid maak. Dit is soos Darwin gese het:".... the truth of the proposition cannot be disputed...". Maar dit is omdat Darwin sy konsep so geformuleer het dat dit nie weerle kan word nie.