User:Acrylen

Introduction Integrating safe water management into daily routines will reduce the risk of disease and promote healthier hygiene practices. In both urban and rural environments, water collection, storage, treatment, use and reuse can be modified depending on the source of water and the availability of containment resources. This wiki article assumes there is a source of water available to the user and provides the reader with a clear understanding of why household water management is an integral part of community health.

Wiki Entries: Community Water Policy: Depending on the water source, the treatment of that source is paramount to the safety of its consumption and use. The maintenance of the source (well, community pump, rain tank) will affect the quality of water collected there. It is important that the entire community take responsibility for the water source by creating an enforceable water policy.

Traditionally, water use and maintenance of the water source is governed by local community-based water arrangements made through oral agreements. Reflecting the community’s strong cultural value of water and supporting “members’ rights to water for life, health, subsistence and livelihoods,” these water agreements are affected by the accountability of local community leaders. (Plenary Statement of Participants at the African Water Laws Workshop January, 2005 http://www.nri.org/waterlaw/AWLworkshop/statement.htm)

Community-based water policy should delegate responsibility of the maintenance of the water source, define rules applied to the use of the water source and allocation or raising of funds for the water source. With a dug well, there should be a system of maintenance including covering the well when not in use and installing protective fencing around the well to prevent animals and other objects from contaminating the well. Regulations about the use of the well might include removing shoes prior to stepping on its concrete platform or lip. With a pump, there should be someone charged with the mechanical maintenance of the pump, designated hours of use, and a fee system established for use of the well which funds maintenance costs.

While most water reform policies made on a national level address the needs of centralized water sources, rural communities are often left to their own agreements regarding their water sources and arrangements.

Recommendations for policy and implementation The International Workshop on African Water Laws recommends that governments, international financing institutions, and donors: 1. In water policy and law formally recognize the validity and legitimacy of local community-based water arrangements - as far as they progressively comply with constitutional imperatives and principles of human rights - as equal to, or alongside, statutory rights and foster synergy between the systems. 2. In developing water resources provide financial and technical support for affordable infrastructure development for small-scale rural water uses by women and men, building on community-based water arrangements and local government, better integrating domestic and productive uses, and incorporating institutional principles consistent with community-based arrangements in the technical design of infrastructure from local to basin level. 3. In administering and authorizing water use a) recognize small-scale rural water uses for livelihoods as lawful without unrealistic and burdensome administrative obligations, for example by raising the thresholds of small-scale water uses below which water use is authorized without registration - while establishing simple water resource planning tools to keep track of the proportion of water resources used by small-scale users; 		b) avoid imposing alien and unrealistic organizational and registration requirements that hamper the functioning of effective and inclusive community-based arrangements; c) allocate collective rights to use water and to set the rules for managing water, where appropriate; 		d) charge water levies for government water resources management only to large water users or collectives who derive most benefits from water; e) consider the linkages between land and water rights/allocations, and ensure that those with unregistered communal land rights are not excluded from obtaining water rights; 		f) test the logistic requirements, implementability and enforceability of draft legislation before adoption. 4. In mitigating upstream-downstream or groundwater competition, e.g. in the dry season a) prioritize and protect water uses that are most beneficial for the livelihoods of the poor against more powerful users, for example by facilitating dialogue according to local community-based arrangements, such as proportional allocation;   b) provide full compensation if water has to be taken away from communities; c) provide adequate deliberative procedures to reduce and solve conflicts arising out of competition. 5. In establishing statutory water resources management institutions   a) devolve (and not just deconcentrate) water management authority to the lowest appropriate level, in particular inclusive local community-based arrangements; b) ensure that new water bureaucracies build on informal community-based water arrangements and local government and that they remain small, cost-effective and focused on pro-poor socio-economic development. (Plenary Statement of Participants at the African Water Laws Workshop January, 2005 http://www.nri.org/waterlaw/workshop.htm)

Contamination It is important that well construction pay particular attention to the risk of contamination. The following preventative measures can be following to prevent contamination of the water source. • The well should be cased with a watertight material (for example, tongue-and-groove precast concrete) and a cement grout or bentonite clay sealant poured along the outside of the casing to the top of the well. • 	The well should be covered by a concrete curband cap that stands about a foot above the ground. • 	The land surface around the well should be mounded so that surface water runs away from the well and is not allowed to pond around the outside of the wellhead. The following is a list should serve as a guide to identify sources of possible contamination threats to a community water source. Category	Contaminant Source Agricultural		• 	Animal burial areas • 	Drainage fields/wells • 	Animal feedlots • 	Irrigation sites • 	Fertilizer storage/use • 	Manure spreading areas/pits, lagoons • 	Pesticide storage/use Commercial		• 	Airports • 	Jewelry/metal plating • 	Auto repair shops • 	Laundromats • 	Boatyards • 	Medical institutions • 	Car washes • 	Paint shops • 	Construction areas • 	Photography establishments • 	Cemeteries Process waste water drainage • 	Dry cleaners fields/wells • 	Gas stations • 	Railroad tracks and yards • 	Gulf courses • 	Research laboratories • 	Scrap and junkyards • 	Storage tanks Industrial	• 	Asphalt plants • 	Petroleum production/storage • 	Chemical manufacture/storage • 	Pipelines • 	Electronic manufacture • 	Process waste water drainage Electroplaters fields/wells • 	Foundries/metal fabricators • 	Septage lagoons and sludge • 	Machine/metalworking shops • 	Storage tanks • 	Mining and mine drainage • 	Toxic and hazardous spills • 	 Wood preserving facilities Residential		• 	Fuel Oil • 	Septic systems, cesspools • 	Furniture stripping/refinishing • 	Sewer lines • 	Household hazardous products • 	Swimming pools (chemicals) • 	Household lawns Other		• 	Hazardous waste landfills • 	Recycling/reduction facilities • 	Municipal incinerators • 	Road deicing operations • 	Municipal landfills • 	Road maintenance depots • 	Municipal sewer lines • 	Storm water drains/basins/wells • 	Open burning sites • 	Transfer stations U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Private Drinking Water Wells - Common Sources of Potential Ground Water Contamination http://www.epa.gov/safewater/privatewells/whatyoucando.html#sources

Wells: Dug, Drilled and Driven There are three types of ways to excavate a well: dug, driven or drilled. This section will give more explanation of each of these methods. Dug Wells are holes in the ground, dug by hand using a shovel or backhoe. (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Private Drinking Water Wells – Dug Wells http://www.epa.gov/safewater/privatewells/basic_dug.html) Traditionally, the person digging the well continues to excavate the hole until he hits the groundwater table and water begins to fill the hole. (U.S. Department of the Interior/ U.S. Geological Survey http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/earthgwwells.html) The dug well is then lined with stones, bricks, tile or wood to prevent the walls from caving in. Dug wells are not very deep and are usually only 10 to 30 feet deep. As these wells are very shallow, they have a very high risk of contamination.

Driven Wells are made by driving small-diameter pipe into the ground which is usually sand or gravel. The bottom of the pipe is covered by a screen which acts as a filter. This method is traditionally used to tap shallow water and is highly susceptible to contamination. (U.S. Department of the Interior/ U.S. Geological Survey http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/earthgwwells.html)

Drilled Wells are made using mechanical drills to break through bedrock and reach a ground water source and usually go 100 to 400 feet deep. A metal or plastic pipe about six inches in diameter extends into the drilled well to prevent shallow ground water from contaminating the well. This casing also extends at least a foot above the ground’s surface and is sealed to prevent surface water from entering the well. Submersible pumps are located near the bottom of the well. It is recommended that that a pitless adapter be used to provide a seal at the spout of the well to prevent contamination. (US Environmental Protection Agency. Private Drinking Water Wells – Drilled Wells http://www.epa.gov/safewater/privatewells/basic_drilled.html)

Collection of Pumped Water: Once the well is built, a collection system must be installed to use the well. A Pulley system is used to extract water from a dug well. The most primitive method of water extraction is throwing a container or bucket attached to a rope over the edge of the well and drawing water. However, a simple machine like a pulley can reduce the work exerted. Both traditional and pulley systems for drawing water have safety concerns, including losing the rope and container and rope burns.

To make drawing water easier, an Indian inventor named Mr. Amrutbhai Agrawat, designed two types of pulley stops. The Ganga is used when the pulley has a ratchet and prevents the rope from rolling back into the well. The Yamuna is used for a roller-type pulley and attaches to a bar adjacent to the handle. (National Innovation Foundation: in support of grassroots innovationshttp://www.nifindia.org/amrutbhai.html)

A Bush Pump or Hand Pump can bring water from 50-100 meters below the ground surface. The hand pump is relatively low cost and can be locally repaired. Hand pumps can serve the needs of about 500 people. (Lifewater Canada http://www.lifewater.ca/)

PlayPumps: Powered by a children’s merry-go-round, water is pumped from the ground into a 2,500-liter tank which stands seven meters above ground. Water is drawn from a tap and excess runs back into the ground through a borehole. The community is encouraged to sell advertising space on the tank which generates revenue for maintenance. (PlayPumps International www.playpump.com)

Solar Powered Pump: A solar powered (photovoltaic) pump meets a village’s demand for water all year round and includes a water storage mechanism. The pump is an expensive option for a village and requires extensive maintenance and care. The total system of a solar powered pump can range from US$800 – US$1,500. While providing perhaps the cleanest water to the village, output of the water must be monitored as the water supply in the storage tower could be depleted and the community would have to wait a few days for a replenished supply. (Practical Action, The Schumacher Centre for Technology and Development http://practicalaction.org)

Collection of Rainwater: Rainwater can also be collected for use with tanks and cisterns that collect water that runs off roofs. It is important to protect collected rainwater from contamination: o	Cover to protect from debris, mosquitoes, birds and animals. o	Protect from direct sunlight, which promotes growth of algae. It is best to construct collection tanks and cisterns from concrete, which is long lasting, or from plastic because it is lightweight and durable. Some collection tanks are made from galvanized steel because it is inexpensive, yet it is susceptible to corrosion. Large oil drums and wooden barrels are also discouraged as they can leave rust and particles in the water. (Commonwealth of Australia. About Your Home Technical Manual – Rainwater Harvesting. http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/yourhome/technical/fs22.htm) Storage: Water is usually collected in a plastic or metal bucket, pot or jerry can and carried back to the home.

Once retrieved, water is usually stored in a cistern or container until it is used. Depending on resources, containers are could be hand-made or store-bought. It is recommended that water be stored in a cool dry place. Oftentimes containers are semi-buried in the earth to keep water cool.

Small-mouthed vessels with spigots are less at risk of contamination than wide-mouthed vessels because hands and cups are not inserted into the pot for retrieval. (American Journal of Public Health. Seeking Safe Storage: A Comparison of Drinking Water Quality in Clay and Plastic Vessels http://www.ajph.org/cgi/content/full/91/10/1610?ijkey=038cab18e135f9654c79b1cfce1793df20b6cd79)

Drinking/Home Sanitization: Potable water that is ingested by humans must meet certain quality standards. Depending on the means of water collection and its source, water must be cleaned/purified before consumption.

Boiling water for one minute kills E.coli, Salmonella, Giardia, Cryptosporidium and the pathogen that causes Cholera. While boiling water is a safe and effective purfication method, if the water is reinfected after boiling, the process must be repeated. Boiling also reduces natural resources including wood to build the fire to heat the water.

Cloth filtration does not completely purify water but it does remove sediment and reduces the number of pathogens including plankton. Cloth filtration can reduce the risk of cholera, giardia, cryptosporidium and guinea worm. 1) Fold an old sari into four or eight layers. 2) Wrap the folded sari over the mouth of a water container to act as a filter. 3) Cloth must be washed and dried in the sun before each use. (The Global Water Crisis: Our Inevitable Fate? http://blogs.princeton.edu/chm333/f2006/water/05_international_issues/03_inexpensive_and_sustainable_forms_of_water_puri/traditional_purification/)

Ceramic filters are another low cost alternative to cleaning water. The colloidal silver-enhanced ceramic water purifier (CWP) was designed in Guatemala in 1981 by Dr. Fernando Mazariegos of the Central American Industrial Research Institute (ICAITI). This filter is now used by a non-profit organization called Potters for Peace and can be manufactured in communities to provide potable water and an income source. (Potters for Peace http://s189535770.onlinehome.us/pottersforpeace/?page_id=9)

Cooking: In food preparation, it is important that fresh fruits and vegetables be washed with clean drinkable water to remove dirt and bacteria. Whenever possible, clean hot water should be used to clean cooking surfaces in order to kill bacteria. It should also be noted that ice used to chill beverages and food should be made from cleaned water.

Washing: Non-potable may be used for most washing purposes with the exception of food. It is important that dishes and utensils used in meal preparation be cleaned with potable water to remove any bacteria that may be transferred to food.

Clothes Washing is best done with agitation as it removes dirt from fabrics, most practices involve scrubbing or beating wet clothing against flat surfaces and the excess water is rung out. As a large quantity of water is required for the task, some rural communities use streams or lakes to wash clothing.

In areas with limited water resources, bathing in large bodies of waters such as lakes, rivers or streams may not be possible and therefore the bucket bath method may be most effective. Using on bucket of water, the bather pours cupfuls of water over their body to rinse away dirt. It is important that the used water has a place to go, therefore it is recommended that bathing areas be built to drain used water. A square of cement or wood platform should be built for the bather to stand on. A runoff for water should direct the drainage downhill from the bathing area to reduce stagnant water and an invitation for mosquitoes and bacteria.

Runoff water from washing and bathing cannot be cleaned or purified for human consumption. It should not be used to hydrate animals either. This water can be reused to water a trees or a garden (as long as fruits and vegetables are cleaned using potable water when ready to eat.)

Latrines/Toilets: Human and animal waste should not be disposed of near sources of water as to avoid all possible contamination of the water source. When building latrines or toilets, it is important to note the water table to avoid contamination. Cement should be used at the surface level and be washed with water regularly. Latrines should be covered when not in use.

Advocacy The promotion of safe household water management continues to be addressed by various NGOs working in developing nations. Most recently a conference hosted by the World Health Organization focused on the strides being made in household water management. (World Health Organization: Water Management. Household water management at the 4th World Water Forum, Mexico City http://www.who.int/household_water/advocacy/wwf/en/index.html)

Conclusion This wiki article overviewed the multiple ways to collect, clean and use water in safe, healthy and daily routines. As stressed in the article, it is important all households take ownership, and responsibility for community water management. Both community leaders and national governments need to implement a strong water policy and educate youth about the importance of clean water in the prevention of disease. While research supports products and methods of effective water purification, substantial funding is an obstacle for some communities. Global awareness and financial campaigns can help build wells and install pumps, however these projects must be sustainable so that the community can see the benefits of clean water for its future generations.